Car History. 12. The Otto Engine and the Emergence of William Crapo Durant

 Time passed, and on May 9, 1876, at the factory of the German Gas Engine Manufacturing Company (hereafter referred to as Deutz), a number of engineers and officials had gathered around a single engine. Among them were Otto, Langen, Daimler, and Maybach. Their faces were filled with excitement, like children delighted, as they observed the cylindrical engine lying on its side, moving rapidly in reciprocation.

Among them, Daimler congratulated Otto:

“Congratulations, President Otto. At last, the fruits of your long research have been realized. This engine, born from your idea, will now move the entire world.”

Otto, smiling broadly, replied to Daimler:

“Thank you, Daimler. Without you and Maybach, this might have remained merely an idea. I believe this engine came to life thanks to your and Maybach’s outstanding skills. Especially the float carburetor Maybach invented last year—I consider it a truly remarkable invention. Thanks to that carburetor, this engine has become far more complete.”

Otto turned to Maybach and praised him. Maybach, smiling, answered:

“The invention of the float carburetor would not have been possible without your concept of the four-stroke cycle, President Otto.”

Otto laughed heartily:

“Meeting Daimler and Maybach has been the greatest fortune of my life. Well then, would you introduce this to the audience here?”

Daimler stepped forward in front of the swiftly operating engine and began explaining to the audience:

“Ladies and gentlemen, I am Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler, technical director at Deutz. Let me explain this engine. Unlike all engines that have run so far, this engine is entirely different. Until now, engines have been the inefficient two-stroke type. But this engine, based on President Otto’s idea, is an internal combustion engine that burns gas in the efficient four-stroke sequence of intake, compression, power, and exhaust.

We have named this sequence, after President Otto, the Otto Cycle.”

Hearing this explanation, the audience congratulated Otto, who was deeply delighted. Daimler, smiling at the congratulatory words, continued:

“To briefly explain the Otto Cycle: in the intake stroke, a mixture of gas and air enters the cylinder through the carburetor. During the compression stroke, the piston rises by the crankshaft, compressing the mixture into a high-pressure, high-temperature state. In the power stroke, a spark ignites the mixture, causing an explosion that drives the piston downward. Finally, in the exhaust stroke, the burned gases are expelled from the engine. This four-cycle process, the Otto Cycle, delivers higher thermal efficiency and stable power compared to any engine before. It is far superior to any internal combustion engine we have seen so far. That concludes my explanation.”

The engine developed in 1876 was the Otto Gas Engine.

The Otto Cycle.

Almost all modern automobiles today use engines based on the Otto Cycle. Otto’s internal combustion engine, the earliest form of the modern engine, used coal gas for lighting as fuel and had an output of 2.2 horsepower. Since combustion occurred directly inside the cylinder, the expanding gases directly powered the engine, achieving a remarkable 10% thermal efficiency at the time.

The four-stroke process of the Otto Gas Engine

To further explain internal combustion engines: fuel combusts directly inside the cylinder, with combustion gases acting directly, minimizing heat loss and increasing efficiency. With higher efficiency, an internal combustion engine can travel much farther on the same amount of fuel compared to an external combustion engine. Unlike an external combustion engine, which required igniting a boiler to generate high-pressure steam and warm up the main engine before starting, the internal combustion engine was much easier to start, stop, and shift.

While external combustion engines required boilers, condensers, and various pumps, making them bulky and complex, the internal combustion engine required no such large structures. For these advantages, Otto, Daimler, and Benz focused on internal combustion engines, leading to the invention of the earliest modern engines.

However, internal combustion engines also had drawbacks. While excelling at high-speed operation, they suffered at prolonged low speeds, causing incomplete combustion, component wear, and reduced output. Their complex structure made them harder for ordinary people to handle. The high combustion pressure in the cylinder created severe noise and vibration, requiring stronger, high-quality materials and advanced machining.

These shortcomings would later trouble Daimler and Benz, but as they overcame them one by one, they rose to become the world’s foremost engineers.

Otto, satisfied with Daimler’s explanation, turned to the audience:

“Ladies and gentlemen, Deutz will now become a global company. I wish to share this glory with all of you. A banquet has been prepared outside—please enjoy yourselves.”

The audience moved to the banquet hall, showering praise on Otto’s invention. Naturally, Daimler and Maybach, the hidden heroes, also received much attention and many questions. Time passed, and Otto, Langen, Daimler, and Maybach remained together at one table.

Before them, their beer foamed over as though celebrating their achievement. Though tired, they chatted with faces filled with the satisfaction of realizing a dream. Soon everyone was focused on Otto’s words.

“What we achieved today with your help was my lifelong dream. Years ago, when I was doing business in Cologne, there was an engineer in France named Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir. He made a gas engine that, at the time, was unparalleled.”

Daimler, who knew better than anyone about Lenoir, nodded deeply. Otto, unaware of Daimler’s gesture, gazed into the air as if reminiscing:

“When I saw his engine, I resolved to make something even better. With my skills at the time, it seemed impossible. So I bought Lenoir’s engine and thoroughly analyzed its structure and function. I discovered areas for improvement and began modifying it. I chose fuel that mixed gas with air. The engine I created was said to be a step ahead of the world. But I didn’t think so. To me, it was only half a step.”

“President Otto, isn’t being a full step ahead of the world better than half a step?”

At Maybach’s question, Otto smiled and answered:

“Of course, being ahead is good. But between a full step and half a step, there is something important. Geniuses like Daimler and Maybach tend to leap far ahead of the world. But if ordinary people cannot understand how far ahead you’ve gone, then no matter how great the invention, it cannot be commercialized. Being one full step ahead belongs to the future. What connects the future and the present is the half step. That half step bridges the two.”

Everyone nodded, deeply moved. Otto’s words were not just technical, but a philosophy of life.

“If what I created before was half a step ahead, then what we made today is, to me, a full step. I offer my heartfelt respect to Langen, Daimler, and Maybach for their efforts.”

Otto raised his beer for a toast and drank heartily.

“This beer tastes wonderful tonight. I will never forget today. That will be all for tonight. Maybach, please submit our engine under the company name at the Philadelphia World’s Fair next year. And personally, I think we should name this engine after me—the Otto Engine. Since the four-stroke cycle is already called the Otto Cycle, why not name the engine Otto as well?”

Daimler responded:

“President Otto, in fact, we have been calling this engine Deutz after the company name. Since many skilled engineers at Deutz poured their efforts into this, wouldn’t it be more fitting to name it after the company?”

Otto pondered, then replied:

“Deutz is fine, but I think Otto is better. Since I was the first to design it, I will call it the Otto Engine.”

Daimler objected politely:

“President Otto, your name will be remembered forever in the Otto Cycle. Please let the engine bear the name Deutz, as we engineers call it with pride.”

Otto, displeased, replied curtly:

“Daimler, I understand your point, but I prefer my name. Let’s not discuss this further. And Maybach, though you’ve worked hard, I need you to continue. Next year, at the Cologne factory, please improve the design for commercialization.”

With that, Otto stood and left. Daimler, sensing Otto’s resolve, said no more. Thus, the engine became known as the Otto Engine, while the four-stroke remained the Otto Cycle. Otto’s name lived on forever, but the conflict between Otto and Daimler began here.

Winter 1877. In Flint, Michigan, a 16-year-old high school student shocked his mother with an announcement:

“Mother, I think I’m going to quit high school.”

Surprisingly, his mother remained calm and answered without alarm:

“Why? You have only six months left before graduation. Why not finish?”

“What I learn at school is all obvious and feels unnecessary.”

“Is that so? Then do as you wish.”

Such a conversation would be unthinkable in most households today. That boy was William Crapo Durant, who would one day become a legendary figure in the automotive industry.

William Crapo Durant (December 8, 1861 – March 18, 1947). A photograph from his youth. His nickname was “Billy.” He would become a legendary figure in mergers and acquisitions.

Durant was born in Boston in 1861, the son of William Clark Durant and Rebecca Folger Crapo, who had married on November 21, 1855. Rebecca later divorced William Clark Durant, who had become an alcoholic, lost his fortune in the stock market, and turned violent. She took their children, Rebecca Crapo Durant (b. 1857) and William Crapo Durant, to live in Flint, Michigan, where her family had settled.

Durant’s maternal grandfather, Henry Howland Crapo, was born in 1804 on a farm near Dartmouth, Massachusetts. By day he worked in the fields; by night he studied under candlelight. He became a schoolteacher, land surveyor, and auctioneer—a self-made man.

After his daughter Rebecca married, Henry Crapo moved to Flint, Michigan, around three years later. At that time, Michigan was booming with the lumber industry. Crapo purchased land near Flint, acquired a large sawmill, and launched a lumber business. He grew wealthy and expanded into railroads. He also entered politics, becoming mayor of Flint in 1860, a Republican state senator in 1862, and governor in 1864 and 1866. But on July 23, 1869, just months before his daughter Rebecca divorced William Clark Durant, Henry Crapo died of gallstones.

Raised by a single mother, young William Durant told his mother he would quit school just six months shy of graduation. Yet at the time, this was not unusual. Many Americans believed success depended more on diligence and creativity than education. University graduates were often mocked as impractical intellectuals.

Though Durant had earned good grades in high school, he wanted to demonstrate his true abilities in society. He dropped out and took his first job at Crapo’s lumberyard, founded by his grandfather. Many assumed that as the founder’s grandson, he would work comfortably in the office. Instead, he earned 75 cents a day hauling lumber.

After this harsh initiation, Durant soon found more suitable work. He became a night clerk at a local drugstore (similar to a modern convenience store), which sold medicine, household goods, cosmetics, tobacco, books, and drinks. Eventually, he convinced the owner to let him work as a traveling salesman, visiting homes to sell medicines and cigars.

With a friendly face, a warm smile, and eloquent speech, Durant quickly became the leading salesman in western Michigan. Before he turned 20, he sold more cigars than the three other salesmen combined. His success led the owner to fire the others and give Durant full control of sales.

From this time on, Durant enjoyed cigars, which later played a decisive role in his split with Louis Joseph Chevrolet. As a successful salesman, the more he worked, the more money he earned. Soon, people in Flint no longer saw Billy merely as a salesman.